Earth and Space Science


Earth and Space Science, Grade 12, University Preparation (SES4U)

This course focuses on the Earth as a planet, and on the basic concepts and theories of Earth science and their relevance to everyday life. Students will examine the Earth’s place in the solar system and, after a general introduction to Earth science, will explore in more detail the materials of the Earth, its internal and surficial processes, and its history. The course draws on astronomy, biology, chemistry, mathematics, and physics in its consideration of geological processes that can be observed directly or inferred from other evidence.

Prerequisite: Science, Grade 10, Academic

Throughout this course, students will:
* demonstrate an understanding of Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System (WHMIS) legislation by selecting and applying appropriate techniques for handling, storing, and disposing of laboratory materials (e.g., following safety procedures when sampling rocks; using materials safely when identifying minerals and rocks), and by using appropriate personal protection (e.g., wearing safety glasses when sampling, and hard hats when visiting outcrops and quarries);
* select appropriate instruments and use them safely, effectively, and accurately in collecting observations and data (e.g., hand lens, polarizing microscope);
* use safe procedures to protect the eyes when observing the sky by day, and choose safe, secure locations when observing the sky at night;
* demonstrate an understanding of emergency laboratory procedures;
* select and use appropriate numeric, symbolic, graphical, and linguistic modes of representation to communicate scientific ideas, plans, and experimental results (e.g., use an appropriate time scale when representing geological time, or appropriate units to represent astronomical distances);
* select, integrate, and analyse information from print and electronic sources, including Internet sites, and, either in writing or using a computer, compile and display the information in various forms, including flow charts, tables, and graphs (e.g., use the Internet to compile information on areas of major earthquake activity, and compare the frequency and intensity of the activity in graphical form);
* communicate the procedures and results of investigations and research for specific purposes using data tables and laboratory reports (e.g., prepare a table of known and unknown minerals sorted in groups according to physical properties such as hardness, colour, and streak);
* express the result of any calculation involving experimental data to the appropriate number of decimal places or significant figures;
* select and use appropriate SI units (units of measurement of the Système international d’unités, or International System of Units);
* identify and describe careers related to Earth and space science (e.g., careers related to hydrology, meteorology, geology, mineralogy, astronomy, and remote sensing).

The Earth As a Planet

Overall Expectations

By the end of this course, students will:
* demonstrate an understanding of the properties of the Earth and of the internal (geological) and external (cosmic) processes operating on it, and draw comparisons with other objects in the solar system;
* investigate and analyse the Earth’s place in the solar system and the effects of cosmic and geological processes on it and on other objects in the solar system;
* describe and explain how observations of the Earth and other objects in the solar system, made both from Earth and from space, are used to study and better understand the natural and the human-made environments of the Earth.

Specific Expectations

Understanding Basic Concepts

By the end of this course, students will:
* visualize and describe the size, shape, and motions of the solar system, and the place of the Earth within it;
* describe the origin and evolution of the Earth and other objects in the solar system, and identify the fundamental forces and processes involved;
* compare the Earth with other objects in the solar system with respect to such properties as mass, size, composition, rotation, and magnetic field;
* describe and explain the following external processes and phenomena that affect the Earth: radiation and particles from the “quiet” and “active” sun; gravity and tides of the sun and moon; and the impacts of asteroidal and cometary material;
* describe the properties of the near-Earth space environment.

Developing Skills of Inquiry and Communication

By the end of this course, students will:
* formulate scientific questions about the nature, origin, and evolution of the Earth and other objects in the solar system;
* visualize and describe the size, shape, and motions of the solar system, and compare the Earth with other planets and objects within it, on the basis of information gathered through research;
* assess critically the scientific questions they have formulated and the information they have gathered in order to identify the fundamental forces and processes that shape the interior, surface, and atmosphere of the Earth and other objects in the solar system;
* identify surface features of the Earth and other objects in the solar system (e.g., craters, faults, volcanoes), using light, infrared, and radio/radar images;
* investigate, either through laboratory activities or research, the interaction of radiation and impacting particles with Earth materials such as air, water, and rock;
* assess the risks associated with solar ultraviolet radiation, and with the collision of asteroidal and cometary material with the Earth.

Relating Science to Technology, Society, and the Environment

By the end of this course, students will:
* explain how the study of other planets and objects in the solar system has led to a better understanding of the Earth (e.g., explain how studying the greenhouse effect on Venus has increased understanding of the same effect on Earth);
* demonstrate an understanding of some of the historical, cultural, and aesthetic consequences of changes in the perception and understanding of the Earth’s place in space (e.g., evaluate the impact of images of the whole Earth taken from space);
* describe how observations and measurements of the Earth made from space are used to study and better understand natural physical elements of the Earth’s environment (e.g., its crust, water, air) as well as human-made elements (e.g., crops, cities, air and water pollution);
* describe the challenges of designing piloted and robotic spacecraft, and of operating them in near-Earth space;
* investigate Canada’s contributions to the study of our planet from near-Earth space (e.g., Radarsat, International Space Station), using information from various print and electronic sources;
* evaluate the negative effects of human activity on near-Earth space (e.g., space debris, pollution of the electromagnetic spectrum).


Introduction to Earth Sciences

Overall Expectations

By the end of this course, students will:
* identify and describe the elements and dynamic interactions of the Earth’s natural systems;
* investigate the basic structure of the planet and the geological processes associated with it, and use the knowledge gained to explain the major interactions among the hydrosphere, lithosphere, biosphere, and atmosphere;
* assess the impact of natural forces and systems on the Earth’s physical and human environments, as well as the impact of human activities on natural systems.

Specific Expectations

Understanding Basic Concepts

By the end of this course, students will:
* demonstrate an understanding of the range of physical scales that apply in the Earth sciences (e.g., from those that apply to the planet as a whole to those used at the atomic level);
* describe the major interactions among the four spheres of the Earth – the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere;
* demonstrate an understanding of the continuous recycling of major rock types throughout Earth history, of the evidence that this process provides with respect to the length and complexity of Earth history, and of the very late appearance of human beings in the geological record;
* describe various kinds of evidence that suggests that life forms, climate, continental positions, and the Earth’s crust have changed over time (e.g., the extinction of the dinosaurs, evidence of past glaciations, evidence of the existence of Pangaea and Gondwanaland).

Developing Skills of Inquiry and Communication

By the end of this course, students will:
* interpret data about the nature of natural disasters, and explain the involvement of physical processes and the role of Earth science in connection with such events;
* demonstrate an understanding of the major tools and techniques (e.g., seismograph, magnetic signature of the ocean floor) that various Earth scientists (e.g., seismologists, geophysicists) use to conduct research on the basic structure and processes of the planet;
* document and explain, through investigation, examples of the complex interconnectedness of physical, chemical, and biological processes as they apply to the Earth (e.g., plants live in the biosphere by taking nutrients and other crucial substances from the other three spheres of the Earth, to which they also contribute important substances).

Relating Science to Technology, Society, and the Environment

By the end of this course, students will:
* explain the interactions of the atmosphere and hydrosphere in the water cycle, and the impact of these interactions on humans;
* describe and explain the effects of natural systems on the Earth’s physical and human environments, and the increasing alteration of certain natural systems that has resulted from human activities;
* analyse, through cooperative research, national and international Earth science endeavours (e.g., Lithoprobe, Ocean Drilling Program) that have increased our understanding of the Earth’s crust, and assess the merits of funding such projects;
* assess how developments in technology have contributed to our understanding of the Earth (e.g., the development of sonar to map the ocean floor).


Earth Materials

Overall Expectations

By the end of this course, students will:
* distinguish between minerals and rocks, and describe the formation and characteristics of both;
* apply a series of specific tests to identify minerals and rocks, including those in the local area, and to determine their physical properties;
* demonstrate an understanding of society’s dependence on Earth materials, of the effects of developments in technology on the exploration and mining of Earth materials, and of the ways in which the use and extraction of Earth materials have affected natural and human-made environments.

Specific Expectations

Understanding Basic Concepts

By the end of this course, students will:
* identify different minerals by their physical and chemical properties, and demonstrate understanding that minerals are the constituents of rocks;
* describe the formation of igneous rocks (plutonic and volcanic), and identify their distinguishing characteristics (e.g., composition and flow behaviour; characteristics of volcanic rocks that indicate the type of volcano in which they were formed);
* describe the formation of clastic and chemical sediments, and of the corresponding sedimentary rocks;
* describe the different ways in which metamorphic rocks are formed (i.e., through changes in temperature, pressure, and chemical conditions) and the factors that contribute to their variety (e.g., variation in parent rock);
* explain (e.g., by interpreting a rock cycle diagram) how rocks and their constituent minerals are continuously being recycled.

Developing Skills of Inquiry and Communication

By the end of this course, students will:
* apply a series of tests (e.g., tests evaluating hardness, streak, and density) to identify common minerals (e.g., quartz, calcite, potassium feldspar, plagioclase feldspar, muscovite, biotite, talc, graphite, gold, silver);
* identify and classify selected hand samples of unknown minerals on the basis of their physical properties (e.g., sort the groups by hardness, colour, streak);
* apply a series of tests to identify common igneous rocks (e.g., granite, obsidian, andesite, basalt, gabbro, peridotite), and classify each according to its origin (e.g., volcanic, plutonic), texture (e.g., coarse-or fine-grained, vesicular, glassy), and composition (e.g., mafic, felsic, intermediate);
* apply a series of tests to identify sedimentary rocks (e.g., conglomerate, breccia, sandstone, shale, limestone, chert, gypsum, rock salt, coal), and classify each according to its origin (e.g., clastic, chemical), texture (e.g., coarse- or fine-grained, detrital), and composition;
* apply a series of tests to identify and classify metamorphic rocks (e.g., slate, phyllite, schist, gneiss, quartzite, marble) and, on the basis of the characteristics of each type, identify its parent rock and the temperature, pressure, and chemical conditions at its formation;
* investigate and describe the geological setting of the local area (e.g., examine the geological setting of a local river/stream bed or lakeshore, and identify and classify rock types on the basis of representative samples collected at the site).

Relating Science to Technology, Society, and the Environment

By the end of this course, students will:
* explain the importance of minerals and other Earth resources (e.g., sand, gravel, dimension stone, oil and gas), and of exploration for these resources, for the local, provincial, and national economies;
* describe and assess the role of Earth materials in the safe disposal of industrial and urban waste and toxic materials;
* describe the uses and evaluate the economic importance of minerals, rocks, and metallic resources (e.g., gold, silver, nickel, copper) and non-metallic resources (e.g., sand and gravel, aggregates, oil and gas, lime, gypsum, industrial minerals, gems);
* describe the use of dimension stone (e.g., in buildings and cemeteries) and explain how the development of new technologies has influenced the type of stone used in the local area (e.g., relate advances in the technology for quarrying and cutting stone to changes in the type of stone used);
* describe some of the technologies used to recover natural resources from the Earth, and evaluate economic, social, and environmental ramifications of their use (e.g., the need for fewer workers and the practice of site rehabilitation resulting from the use of improved technologies in the mining of nickel).


Internal and Surficial Earth Processes

Overall Expectations

By the end of this course, students will:
* identify the processes at work within the Earth (e.g., plate tectonics, earthquakes, volcanism) and on its surface (e.g., running water, weathering and erosion, mass wasting, glaciation), and describe the role of both types of processes in shaping the Earth’s surface;
* investigate, through the use of models and analysis of information gathered from various sources, the nature of internal and surficial Earth processes, and the ways in which these processes can be measured;
* demonstrate an understanding of the interrelationships between internal and surficial Earth processes (e.g., earthquake activity, volcanic eruptions, floods, erosion) and the ways in which they affect human activity.

Specific Expectations

Understanding Basic Concepts

By the end of this course, students will:
* demonstrate an understanding of the kinds of evidence that Earth scientists use to document lithospheric plate motion (e.g., the corresponding shapes of the coastlines of Africa and South America; fossil evidence);
* distinguish between faults and joints;
* describe the characteristics of the three main types of seismic waves, P-, S-, and L-waves, and explain the different modes of travel, travel times, and types of motion associated with each;
* distinguish between erosion and weathering, and describe the processes and effects of physical, chemical, and biological weathering;
* demonstrate an understanding of the importance of different erosional processes, and describe the types and causes of mass wasting (e.g., landslides) and its critical role in changing the Canadian landscape;
* identify types of sediment transport (e.g., wind, water, glacial), and compare the particle size and shape, degree of sorting, and sedimentary structures resulting from each;
* identify the types of stream load (i.e., solution, suspension, and bedload) and describe how each moves in a stream;
* demonstrate an understanding of the importance of aquifers and of their fragility in terms of contamination and depletion.

Developing Skills of Inquiry and Communication

By the end of this course, students will:
* describe, on the basis of information gathered from print and electronic sources, the various types of possible margins between lithospheric plates (e.g., convergent, divergent, transform, and intraplate activity) and the types of internal Earth processes occurring at each;
* produce diagrams of the following structures, and identify examples of them in maps and photographs: normal, reverse, thrust, and strike-slip (transform) faults; domes and basins; anticlines and synclines;
* investigate and produce a model of each type of seismic wave, using springs and ropes, and describe for each the nature of its propagation and the resulting movement within the rocks through which it is travelling;
* compare qualitative and quantitative methods (e.g., the Mercalli Scale and the Richter Scale) used to measure earthquake intensity and magnitude;
* produce a diagram or model, to scale, of the interior of the Earth in order to differentiate among the layers of the Earth and their characteristics (e.g., use cross-sections to provide the dimensions of crust, mantle, and inner and outer core, and travel-time curves for various seismic waves to provide data on the characteristics of the individual layers);
* design and construct a working model of a seismograph, and explain its use in recording earthquake activity;
* locate the epicentre of an earthquake, given the appropriate seismographic data (e.g., the travel-time curves to three recording stations for a single event);
* design and test methods to control mass wasting;
* relate the characteristics of sediment (e.g., grain size, shape, composition) to the velocity and direction of currents in a beach or stream environment (e.g., examine where sediment is being eroded and deposited in a local beach or river/stream environment);
* investigate and explain the interrelationship among geological maps, cross-sections, and block diagrams, and the ways in which they represent the subsurface structure and/or the geological history of an area.

Relating Science to Technology, Society, and the Environment

By the end of this course, students will:
* describe methods of monitoring and predicting earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanic eruptions;
* describe and explain how the development of the seismograph has contributed to a better understanding of the internal structure of the Earth;
* identify and describe engineering and technological innovations and adaptations resulting from human activity in areas of permafrost (e.g., pipeline construction, oil and natural gas exploration, residential construction and urbanization);
* identify and describe engineering and technological innovations and adaptations (e.g., in building design, highway construction, emergency services) resulting from the impact of earthquake activity on human populations;
* describe the underlying assumptions and the limitations of predictions of earthquake activity, and assess the implications of such predictions for populations in Canada and around the world;
* identify major areas of tectonic activity in the world (e.g., Japan – convergent margin; Iceland – divergent margin; California – transform fault), drawing on information about the relationship between earthquakes, volcanoes, and plate boundaries (e.g., plot on a world map, for a given time period, the locations of recorded earthquakes and active volcanoes);
* demonstrate an understanding of how erosion and deposition by streams are affected by load, gradient, channel shape, sediment composition, and human activities.


Earth History

Overall Expectations

By the end of this course, students will:
* demonstrate an understanding of the concept of geological time;
* analyse and assess geological evidence that suggests that life forms, climate, continental positions, and the Earth’s crust have changed over time;
* explain the importance of the geological and fossil records for our understanding of the Earth’s history, and describe their use in related economic activities.

Specific Expectations

Understanding Basic Concepts

By the end of this course, students will:
* demonstrate an understanding of the differences between relative and absolute dating techniques as they apply to natural systems;
* describe and explain the various methods of isotopic age determination, giving for each the name of the isotope, its half-life, its effective dating range, and some of the materials (e.g., minerals and rocks) that it can be used to date;
* describe some processes by which fossils are produced and/or preserved (e.g., original preservation, carbonization, replacement, permineralization, and mould and cast formations), and sketch a representative fossil of a foraminifer, mollusc, brachiopod, echinoderm, arthropod, coelenterate, vertebrate, graptolite, and plant;
* describe the diversity of life in the Proterozoic, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras and the ranges of important groups of fossils that date from each.

Developing Skills of Inquiry and Communication

By the end of this course, students will:
* use and interpret information from appropriate sources (e.g., a sequence diagram, geological maps showing major geological regions and associated rock types) in describing the geological history of an area (e.g., Ontario);
* investigate and analyse various types of preserved geological evidence of changes that have taken place in Earth history (e.g., past glaciations, tectonic activity, plate movement);
* demonstrate an understanding of the evolution of life, as revealed through fossil analysis;
* demonstrate the ability to use the geological time scale as an aid in interpreting the history of a sequence of strata;
* investigate and interpret the significance of an unconformity preserved in a sequence of strata (e.g., the boundary between Paleozoic and Precambrian rocks in southern Ontario);
* investigate radioactive decay and the concept of half-life determination (e.g., design a simple, safe experiment that provides a model of half-life decay of radioactive elements);
* analyse the evidence used to determine the age of the Earth (e.g., radiometric dating of geological materials), and outline the historical evolution of attempts to establish the Earth’s chronology.

Relating Science to Technology, Society, and the Environment

By the end of this course, students will:
* illustrate the geological time scale and compare it to human time scales (e.g., develop a series of timelines to represent their life, their family tree or history, the history of Canada, the history of civilization, the geological history of the local area, and the major events in Earth history, and compare the scales necessary to present this data on a 1m strip);
* demonstrate an understanding of the significance of paradigm shifts in the development of geological thinking (e.g., contrast the principles of uniformitarianism and catastrophism);
* demonstrate an understanding of the importance of fossils in the petroleum and mining industries as tools for biostratigraphic correlation and as indicators of depositional environments;
* describe Canadian contributions to our knowledge about absolute age dating and to technological applications based on this knowledge.